The Role of Connecting Unrelated Events in Developing...

On the Shoulders of Giants: The Role of Connections in Developing Intelligence Abstract This paper provides motivation for making connections between unrelated events as a basis for intelligence. The ability to apply this extended information as a problem-solving technique instantiates the true nature of intelligence. Therefore, it is obvious the field of artificial intelligence should use the same approach. The way these connections are made and the occasional necessity for their modification is discussed. Examples are given showing the use of connections between linguistics and sociocultural systems studies and between engineering design and nature. Next, several examples connecting artificial intelligence with computer†¦show more content†¦Susan connected her falling during the biking accident to the doll falling. Sentient beings use these connections as one method of developing intelligence. Therefore, it stands to reason artificial intelligence researchers rely on these connections to forward study in the field. Connections have been found to exist between linguistics and sociocultural systems studies and engineering and nature. Also, connections exist between artificial intelligence and computer programming, mathematics, astronomy, and engineering. Researchers in artificial intelligence themselves have varied backgrounds. This, however, is not unique to the field. History shows a precedence for connectionist activity in many of the great discoverers of the past. Therefore, researchers in artificial intelligence are expected to continue the practice of drawing from other disciplines in their quest to develop artificial intelligence. Early Connections: The Role of Experience Leonardo da Vinci said: all our knowledge finds its origins in our perceptions (Willis, p. 47). Just like falling off a bike, experiences form ones perception of how the world functions into a term called folk physics (Bechtel, p. 72). These workings can then be applied to new problems. Tackling new problems using previous solutions or experiences and applying this information to unrelated problems is known as analogy in problem-solving (Andrew, p. 7). Sometimes these analogies are incorrect, butShow MoreRelatedLodging Inductry24737 Words   |  99 Pagesand satisfied customers. This would include identifying consumer needs, developing a good product, and pricing, distributing, and promoting it effectively. This chapter introduces all of these terms and gives an overview of their place in the marketing world. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES Students should be able to: 1. Understand the relationships between the world’s hospitality and travel industry. 2. Define the role of marketing and discuss its core concepts. 3. Explain the relationshipRead MoreMarketing Discussion15807 Words   |  64 Pagesinvolved in marketing ten types of entities: goods, services, events, experiences, persons, places, properties, organizations, information, and ideas. A) Goods Physical goods constitute the bulk of production and marketing efforts. B) Services A growing portion of business activities are focused on the production of services. The U.S. economy today consists of a 70–30 services to goods mix. C) Events 5 Marketers promote time-based events such as trade shows, artistic performances, and the OlympicsRead MoreEducation13037 Words   |  53 Pagessection of the textbook is to highlight the various types of business information systems found in organizations and how they relate to one another. The chapters found within this section speak to various types of business information systems and their role in helping ï ¬ rms reach their strategic goals. Though each chapter is devoted to a speciï ¬ c type of business information system (e.g., those used for strategic decision making, supply chain management, customer relationship management, and enterpriseRead MoreEssay on bussines stretegy LOLC 19948 Words   |  40 Pagesorganization, A vision of a business conveys a larger sense of purpose in which as example the employees see themselves as building an apartment complex rather than laying stones.† The Cargill’s Ceylon PLCs vision statement, To be a global corporate role model in community – friendly national development. The vision statement of Cargill’s Ceylon has both positive and negative feedback. It is a good vision statement which has started with the word ‘To â€Å"depicting that it is future oriented. 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WhichRead MoreSarap Strategic Management Paper18055 Words   |  73 PagesVisayas and Mindanao regions as a separate entity from that of Luzon and GMA for reasons that the cultures and taste preferences are so distinct in itself creating a world of possibilities for the business. †¢ On consumer purchasing habits, developing lower cash outlay products as an answer to a growing economic reality. Simultaneously, other efforts on master brand activations and company-wide initiatives are deemed to be necessary as it can assist Sarap address growing direct and indirect

Hijras Of Indi Challenging The Sexually Dimorphic...

Hijras of India: Challenging the Sexually Dimorphic Construction of Gender The Hijras of India are typically born male, but they undergo ritual surgery to remove their male genitals in order to establish a new gender identity (Guest, 2014). The Hijras identify with the Hindu Mother Goddess, Bahuchara Mata, who is generally represented as transgendered (Guest, 2014). They typically dress and talk like women, although they are not seen as male nor female (Guest, 2014). They may also engage in sex with men. Because Hijras identify with the Hindu Goddess, they are revered as a sacred figure, but at the same time, they are marginalized in society. They live according to an established code of conduct in communities known as â€Å"gharanas† (Patel,†¦show more content†¦While Hijras live in a culture that accepts them and their transgender identity, Indian culture appears to be influenced by the pervasive dominance of sexual dimorphism in the Western hemisphere, as Hijras are simultaneously seen with fear and criticism. They refuse to identify with the male gender, although they are often born as males (Lal, 1999). Hijras identify themselves in complex and seemingly contradictory forms, demonstrating that they cannot be put into a box along sexually dimorphic lines: â€Å"Hijras are impotent, but they replenish themselves and are believed to hold the power of fertility and infertility over others; they are born men, but they disavow the male sex; they often indulge in homosexual behavior, but contemptuously dismiss homosexuals as not of their kind; and while construing themselves as women, they cannot experience the cycles of menstruation, pregnancy, birth, lactation, or menopause, which, at least to some degree, characterize the biological and cultural lives of women† (Lal, 1999, p. 129). Thus, Hijras characterize ambiguity, and they embrace an identity that is uniquely distinct from the traditional views of male and female. Serena Nanda’s ethnographic observation analyzes the complex position of the Hijra in Indian society (Guest, 2014). Nanda explains that â€Å"†¦the hijra role continues to be sustained by a culture in which religion still gives positive meaning to gender

English Vs Math Essay Example For Students

English Vs Math Essay To most people English or Language Arts is a creative course and math is just a logical, you get it or you dont class. My purpose writing this paper is to change your mind. I believe that Math is just as, or more creative than English. I will demonstrate this through a couple of examples. First, we must understand what is behind the creative aspect in English. Most people consider that English is the, creative, subject because of titles such as creative writing and creative thinking and in contrast there is no creative something in math. In English when we are, lets say, going to write a creative short story we use our imaginations and there are no limits. Now on the other hand in math when faced with a problem such as; if you have 300 meters of fence and have to enclose a rectangular field. What would be the dimensions of the field that would yield the largest area? When mathematicians go to solve one of these they have to be creative in their problem solving. Perhaps, one of the best ways to demonstrate creativity in math is through an identity question. An identity question is where you have an equation and you try to manipulate each side individually without touching the other side and get them to be equal. We start off with something like sin squared theta over cos theta plus cos and the objective here is to prove that it is identical to sec theta. At first looks there is no connection but by using creative methods and hours of work eventually we figure out the way to do it. Sin? + Cos ? | Sec ? Cos ? | First I would make everything over Cos ? Sin ? + Cos ? | Sec ? Cos ? | Then I would apply a law 1 | Sec ? Cos ? Then a simple law Sec ? | Sec ? You can prove that it is creative because a computer cant solve this equation, (a computer thinks logically). Technically a computer could solve this equation but it could just tell you if they were equal and not to the same level of accuracy. A computer would input a value for ? on both sides and if the answer is equal then the equation is equal. The problem with this is that when you get into trigonometry there could be a difference in the decilionth decimal place. A computer cant work with the abstract which is what is in my example. A computer may take 2 seconds or a million years to find an answer or it may give the wrong answer! The other point is that a computer can only perform things in a certain order it cant guess or have a feeling about a question, which brings in the creative aspect. Another example happened during one of my Calculus classes that I believe to be the most abstract and creative of the maths. A fellow student and me figured out pie. We figured out that the integral from 0 to1 of the square root of x minus 1 is equal to half of pie. We had huge problems figuring out this equation but persistence eventually won out and we solved it. Later we found out that this was a University Calculus level question and we shouldnt have been able to solve it due to our lack of skills in this area. Creativity then can be the only culprit for our derivation of the solution. Finally one of my strongest points is that on some of the more creative math units the more creative people usually the artsy type do a lot better than in the other units and by no means because these units are easier. Remember that I am not saying that English isnt creative, just that Math is more creative than anyone gives it credit for.

Youth culture under globalization

Introduction Globalization is a reference often used by a lot of people and is defined in various ways. All the same, it is normally made out as being caused by a blend of financial, scientific, socio-cultural, opinionated and organic features. The reference can also point to the worldwide flow of initiatives, lingos, or popular culture by way of assimilation. One of the mainly contentious facets of this phenomenon is the universal spread and domination of American way(s) of life (Mercy Corps, 2009, p.1).Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on Youth culture under globalization specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In the same manner as United States commodities flooded global markets in the period following the Second World War, American way(s) of life are at the moment making a way into each continent by way of the spectacular development of mass communications such as song, TV, motion pictures and the World Wide Web. The making way into other parts of the world of US companies has as well played a major role in this. Overseas leaders and activists drawn from various backgrounds have reiterated their concerns that the ways of the world may turn out to be too Americanized and end up wiping out other cultures. A feature of the globe that has undergone the above described course can be said to be globalized. For instance, in business, it means the rising fusion of the globe’s trade and Industry order by way of cutback of such hurdles to global business as levies, export charges and import rations. The aim is to add to material affluence, commodities and services by way of an intercontinental sharing out of effort through good organization(s) enhanced by global associations, specialism and contention. It depicts the means through which area financial systems, civilizations, and customs have turned out to be incorporated by way of communication, haulage, and doing business. The reference is for the most part directly linked with the reference economic globalization. This refers to the amalgamation of state-run financial systems into the intercontinental economy by way of buying and selling, overseas direct venture, resources flows, migration, the broadening of expertise, and armed forces being there. As a result globalization, it is imperative that businesses and various other ventures have to alter their way of doing things so as to stay afloat or survive in the marketplace. This means that they need to rethink their strategies in order to incorporate the reality of globalization.Advertising Looking for term paper on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More International marketplaces and especially the surfacing ones present lucrative prospects. For a lot of businesses it is the single front for advancement as subsisting marketplaces get established with a small number of opportunities for lucrative chances (Hopeton, 1995, p. 88). As international markets develop by way of the rising use of the World Wide Web and with enhanced delivery chains, it is probable that there are a lot of unexploited sectors around the globe that would open to a transnational firm, in spite of the trade. Progressively, the globe is turning out to be an accessible international business place. To stop production, selling, and offering services at one’s home-base boundaries is not just whimsical, but also ill-judged. Intercontinental marketing and existence is mostly characterized majorly in conditions of the echelon of participation of the firm in the worldwide marketplace, and sell overseas, transnational and worldwide marketing are most extensively mulled over. As a result, these are the major areas in which the strategies of any international venture or one that aims to go that way need to ponder over. Youth culture under globalization The globalization of the way(s) of living, the impact on customs of the greater than ever association of the globe and its inhabitants, is conceivably nowhere more able to be seen than in the shifting nature of the affiliation involving the globe’s youth and their sense of identity. It has turned out to be routine to think of the globe’s youth as that component of the society who are most open, or, on the other hand, inclined to alien cultural ways. The United States of America has the globe’s leading economy and the strongest known armed forces, and has taken huge leaps in influencing the rest of the humanity to think and operate the same way they do (Millet, 2010, p.1). The youth are normally at a stage where they get exposed to various aspects which fascinate them. As a result, they most of the times have the desire to act and go about their affairs in ways which they have found fashionable and copied from whichever culture(s). With the American ways of life being the most dominant in the world today, then most of them ap e this culture. If early days stand for acceptance, and maturity means conservatism, youth stands for noncompliance. The formative years are seen as the portion of the general public that is most expected to take on a course of cultural sponging that is upsetting of the duplication of long-established cultural ways. These practices range from ways of clothing, verbal communication, aesthetics, and thoughts, among others.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on Youth culture under globalization specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Formative social groups come out as being absolutely defiant derived as much from a longing to throw out the ways of the age bracket that went earlier than them, as from an individuality with what they have turned out to be. The extent to which the American ways of life have penetrated the globe is not difficult to notice. It is actually very clear that the era of globalization, more than any other era prior to it, is a period that has both imparted immense impacts upon, and been hugely impacted by young persons. How the world youth are being Americanized Americanization is the modern-day reference used for the sway the United States has on the ways of life of other nations, replacing their ways of life with American trends (Galeota, 2004, p. 21). A majority of the globe appears to be tagging along America and dropping its real forms of life. The phenomenon has not left even the Chinese community that has no weak points (Tamura, 1993, p. 110). The taking upon other people’s way(s) of life against one’s better judgment has an unconstructive implication, whereas, when it is hunted out of one’s own free will it has an affirmative implication. A lot of cultures more than ever the Europeans have in most times looked down on Americans articulating that they have no culture. Nevertheless, as any social scientist will say, even having no defined way of life is a culture in its own right. As a result, for several years the land of settlers has been on a course of forming distinctiveness and for this reason a culture. Talking of style, trends that originated in America are now commonplace in other parts of the world. For instance, the laid-back American trend of putting on jeans, T-shirt and sneakers is now widespread and up to standard in lots of places. Those working in offices and other formal environments can in most times be seen in tight jeans and long sleeved shirts, with ties on. The justification is that this is a contemporary style (read American). Another widespread replication of styles that originated in the Americas is the cowboy hats, boots and big silver belt fasteners. These originated form mainly Texas and Arizona. The American music business has also played a major role in influencing the youth trends across the world. Those in their formative years are copying the trends of famous artistes. Youths even in the developi ng world are struggling to live like these idols. Even those who are keen to venture into the showbiz industry are not following the ways of their forefathers, instead they want to conduct their affairs the American way.Advertising Looking for term paper on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This can be seen from well-known artists like 50-cent, Jay-z, Lil John, among others, with their showy modes of dress set apart by ostentatious jewelry, popularly known as bling bling (Millet, 2010, p.1). It is not uncommon to see young people from other parts of the world who are out to sing donning styles that are copied from these artists. World over, the United States of America is conceivably best branded for its various and doing well fast food outlets. Such franchises, together with Krispy Kreme Doughnuts, McDonald’s, Burger King, and Kentucky Fried Chicken, among others, are famous for producing and selling fast foods and drinks. Travelling around the world reveals that that there is numerous such food joints, and they even adopt the same names. Such places are popular with the generation in their formative years who are out to look trendy and fashionable. This is despite the fact that much of the food sold in such joints has been proven by medical experts to be cause for lifestyle diseases such as obesity. Another area of American culture that has influenced youth in the rest of the world and cannot be ignored is popular culture. The broadcast of American ways of life has been majorly by way of a number of channels with the leading medium being the electronic media. TV and films have really shown the world how the Americans conduct their issues. The Hollywood actors appearing strong and smoking cigars and slim women have all had an effect on the manner in which youths in the rest of the world want to conduct their affairs. A majority of the youth nowadays do not pay much attention to music, movies and other entertainment stuff produced in their native lands. Instead they are looking up to material originating from the Americas. It is open for all to see that many nations and continents now have correspondents of the American entertainment awards. Almost all of these awards imitate what takes place in the famed American functions like the Grammy Awards for the music industry and the Oscar Awards for movies. All these are events and functions in which the youth have interest and copy trends from (Millet, 2010, p.1). A lot of nations have also gone ahead and have come up with theme recreational areas founded on the American Disney World form. Language has not been left behind as young people copy American English and slang. This is because they are in most of the times engrossed in music, movies, and literature, among other stuff from America. The United States of America have a huge stake and influence in the advancement of the World Wide Web and its associated technology. Gurus of both hardware and software stuff that is related with internet use are majorly drawn from America. As a result, inventions in that field are never devoid of the American touch. The youth who have a keen interest in the latest inventions and advancements thus find themselves inclined to the American way(s) of doing things. Basketball is a loved sp ort in the US and if keen observations are made in the rest of the world then one cannot fail to notice how the trends of the game are replicated especially among college students. Limitations of globalization Adoption of American culture in other parts of the world and especially by the young generation has not been taken lightly by all. Various arguments have been raised and they make a lot of sense. If the trend continues, then the globe will eventually be Americanized. With America being the most dominant economy in the world with a mighty armed forces to boot then no other developed culture can surpass it in swaying the world to adopt its trends (Mercy Corps, 2009, p.1). This is a huge disadvantage to other cultures as their ways will be wiped out in a matter of time. The end result will be cultural and corporate imperialism. Cultural imperialism refers to the supremacy of one culture over another, with the same being the case for the corporate world. The cause can be due to pl anned strategy or by economic or scientific authority, or a combination of all these factors. The youth in other parts of the world, particularly in the developing world who are keen to take on foreign practices are the ones to suffer negative consequences. Economically there is going to be the utilization of foreign poor workers by the dominant economy(s). Such workers are utilized as cheap labor since they are desperate and desire to work for the industrialized and developed nations. The future of US domination in the world It has been observed that as long the United States remains the dominant economy and the world superpower then its dominance in many fronts in the world might not come to an end any time soon. The aspects of society in which young people everywhere have interest in are majorly dominated by the Americans. These range from entertainment, sports, fashion, technology and corporate trends, among others. With the advancement of communication through electronic media these things are accessible from any part of the world. Young people are energetic and take up these things with lots of gusto. It will take a lot for another entity to come in and overtake the US, taking into account that it has been there for quite some time now. It is interesting to note that as this debate continues, Americans rebuff the notion that their culture is a threat to other overseas ways of life. A majority of them think that such claims are blown out of proportion. All in all, US culture had a huge effect on other cultures in the 20th century, and observers believe the same will be the case in the 21st century. Reference List Millett, F. (2010). Americanization. Web. Mercy Corps. (2009). Americanization or globalization? Web. Galeota, J. (2004). Cultural Imperialism: An American Tradition. Hopeton S. Dunn. (1995). Globalization, communications, and Caribbean identity. St Martin’s Press, New York and Randle Publishers, Kingston. Tamura, E. (1993). Americanizatio n, Acculturation, and Ethnic Identity: THE NISEI GENERATION IN HAWAII (Asian American Experience). Urbana: University of Illinois Press. This term paper on Youth culture under globalization was written and submitted by user Heidi Mccormick to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Pedal to the Medal free essay sample

Jumping rope will always be dear to my heart. The last time I remember winning a contest was in second grade when I outlasted my classmates. Though the medal was paper, it was winning that made me proud. I savored that moment as my P.E. teacher carefully placed the medal over my head. I definitely was on the road to success. As years passed, however, I became one of many students competing to make it to the top and my success rate began to falter. Sure, I won a few poem parties and races, but those accomplishments were small compared with my peers. Not only did they compete and win against classmates, they also challenged champions from other schools. My friends boasted about every area imaginable: sports, music, spelling bees, writing contests you name it, they could do it. Sometimes I wondered if I was of the same species as those around me. We will write a custom essay sample on Pedal to the Medal or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Often I would quietly watch the activity going on, trying to be cheerful for the others because I knew it meant the world to them, but I couldnt help but feel envious. While everybody had at least one area they excelled in, I felt so average: the child who got good grades, did well in sports, participated in music class, but never was the best at anything. I was just another person, my face hidden among thousands, with nothing to amplify my existence or my purpose. Throughout junior high, there was lots of competitions where I had the chance to shine, including the talent show. All three years, I was cut from the show, each rejection more devastating than the last. It made me feel I had no abilities, nothing to prove my worth. Whats worse is that during lunch and recess my friends would practice in secret and I would spend my time alone, walking around the playground kicking a ball. When the day of the show arrived, I would gloomily slump in the stands, wishing that I could dance as beautifully as that girl or act as well as that boy. Eventually, I started to get used to the fact that I was just average. Often I would dream of being the star of a show, the champion of a contest, but realized that these were just thoughts and pitifully short of reality. In ninth grade, my science teacher required each student to work on a project to enter in the science fair. Undoubt-edly I wouldnt win a prize, but I resolved to give it my best. I labored night and day, researching and adding more to perfect my project. The night of the judging, I sat silently, dreaming of awards and acclamations. The phone rang I had an interview for my project. I was ecstatic! Never before was I given such a privilege. I went on to win first in my category and advanced to the county fair. After setting up my project at the fair, I knew I had done well just to get that far. Pleased with my accomplishments, I realized I had finally done something that made me proud. I was beginning to find a place. No longer was I running along the sidelines, trying to find a gap to fit in, but a part of the circle, flowing with the joy and rhythm of life. The days events settled comfortably in my mind as I snuggled under my covers that night. I was no longer an average person who couldnt do anything right. It was my turn to share my accomplishments with my peers. It was my turn to shine. I no longer was just the girl in the background. Two days later, I was called into an interview for the Country Science Fair and went on to win a medal. Its brilliance and beauty shone into my face. Sure, it was an object, but it represented me, the person who was actually something. This medal has opened countless doors. Even the smallest of people can find their places if they set their hearts to it. It could take weeks, months or even years, but in the end, they wont just be jump-rope champions, theyll be true champions.

history3 essays

history3 essays Africa is the world's second-largest continent, the biggest after Asia. It is more than three times the size of the U. States. It also contains more independent nations than any other continent on Earth-55 in all. Africa is centrally located on the Earth's surface. It straddles the Equator, extending for thousands of miles north and sough of that line. The continent stands between two major oceans. To the west is the Atlantic Ocean and to the east lies the Indian Ocean. The Mediterranean Sea in the north and the Red Sea in the I have 10 different opion on the most common stereotypes about Africa. For the Climate of Africa they said it is hot and dry, for most vegetation they said grassy lands, for most common animal in Africa people said monkeys, African common skin color black, Africans do for living they said herding and farming, types of family Africans live in extended, most common religion in Africa are catholic, common language spoken in Africa is English, civilization white people, government of African countries are democratic, and the biggest problem in Africa today is hunger. These are the results of my CLIMATE: Because of its size, almost every type of climate and vegetation can be found in Africa. The largest climate zone in Africa is the tropical climate with a wet and dry season. The savanna, a grassland, occupied this region, which covers almost half the continent. Like the tropical rain forest, the tropical savanna region is warm all year. In the summer, or rainy season, the climate is hot and wet. In winter it is warm, with little POPULATION: Today the population of Africa is approaching 680 million and is growing rapidly. Population growth has created problems in the drier parts of the savanna. During times of plentiful rainfall, people seeking land move into these semiarid ...

)edipus Rex and A Raisin in the Sun Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

)edipus Rex and A Raisin in the Sun - Essay Example This article aspires to draw out comparison in the area of 'Written and Unwritten Laws' that govern the setup in both works, even though the two belong to completely different time periods and genres, as already mentioned. Oedipus Rex is set-up in olden day Greece, wherein the State was an important aspect of governance. It w as governed by laws and duties, fundamental to the state. These were the written laws of the state. When Creon lays down that Polynices, who is envisaged as the enemy of the state, not be given the rightful burial, he does so with the perspective fo attaching more importance to the state. However, he is opposed by his wife, son and other civilian citizens. This is due to the fact that sometimes, unwritten laws of humane nature gain an upper hand over the written rules and regulations of the state. In addition to this, we get well acquainted with the theme of 'prophesising', in the Greek drama. Tiresias is a person who can pronounce prophecies and advise people on what needs to be done.

Testicular tumors- Large cell calcifying sertoli cell tumors Essay

Testicular tumors- Large cell calcifying sertoli cell tumors - Essay Example The sertoli cell tumor is normally malignant and does not spread to the other parts of the body. It is not only seen in human beings but also in species like horses, dogs and ducks. They do not show any symptoms of illness other than a painless lump of mass in the testicals.Under the microscope, sertoli cell tumor display a closely situated solid and hollow tubules lined by epithelial cells. This tumor can be diagnosed with histological and pathological tests. The usually conducted treatment is surgery .For malignant tumors the treatment conducted are chemotherapy and at times radiation therapy. Many a times to detect the tumor in earlier stage repeated physical examination and imaging is required. The prognosis of the tumor which is benign is good as the growth of it is very slow. The History of Sertoli Cell Tumor The discovery of sertoli cell can be accredited to Enrico Sertoli who was just 18 yrs old when he began his studies in research at the university of Pava, in Northern Ital y in 1860.He studied general medical subjects at first and after 2 yrs began his research studies in the laboratory of the distinguished physiologist and histologist, professor Eusobio Oehl. Sertoli was born on June 6, 1842 to a noble family in the small town of Sondrio, located North of Milano along the Italian - Swiss border. His noble birth in all probability meant that he was expected to attend university and study medicine. The cellule ramificate or branched cell was discovered using the personal microscope of Enrico Sertoli. He had purchased the microscope in 1862, after he began his studies under professor Oehl. The quality of the microscope and the personal importance are evident by the care that Sertoli devoted to it, which has permitted its survival for more than 100 years. In anticipation of the microscope’s arrival,Sertoli likely collected several pieces of human testes preserved in a sublimate solution that he later reported as the incubation solution of choice a t that time.Sertoli used several types of preparation of testes, including mocrodissection of individual seminiferous tubules, thin sections of the testis after sublimate incubation, pieces of fresh tissue and frayed sections of tubules.Sertoli has spend numerous hours with the microscope in the laboratory but was skeptical that the testes might have remained in the sublimate solution for longer time which could affect the result. Sertoli performed tests with different methods and improved his observation and laid out different drawings of his findings. In his drawings sertoli included round germ cells, seminiferous cells embedded within the branched cell limbs.Sertoli drew intricate details of what he observed and report lipid droplets in this cell. He mentioned several times that the lipid could exert very important functions in the cell, a function that we still know little about today. He also drew the cell as appearing syncytial or as branched multinucleated cell , which surely raised many questions from students .In the year 1886, Sertoli published his last manuscript which was a breakthrough which suggested the primary role of spermatozoa to reach and fertilize the egg. In 1878 , Sertoli published a statement that the branched cells, which he now called cellule fisse or fixed cells no longer, divided in the adult

Nursing Philosophy Essay Example for Free

Nursing Philosophy Essay Introduction Philosophy originates with the Greek word philosophia, which translates as the love of wisdom. Philosophers are engaged in inquiry concerning the search for truth, the nature of universe and the meaning of human experience. Welch Polifroni(1999). The aim of this paper is to compare and contrast the philosophical paradigms of Realism, Antirealism, Phenomenology , Postmodernism. To relate the Empiricism, Positivism, Historicism, and Relativism to the nature of scientific truth. Moreover, to discuss the significance of truth for nursing as a profession and as a science. The various paradigms are characterized by ontological, epistemological and methodological differences in their approaches to conceptualizing and conducting research, and in their contribution towards disciplinary knowledge construction. Weaver, and Olson. (2006). Table 1 illustrate theses differences between these philosophical paradigms. Realism and Antirealism Realism has an ontology which states that the structures creating the world cannot be directly observed. Its epistemology is that appearances do not necessarily reveal the mechanisms which cause these appearances, and its methodology therefore  involves the construction of theories which can account for these appearances. Wainwright,S. ( 1997). Realism, in the Aristotelian, holds that things and individuals have existence independent of human thought and that this extra-mental world is intelligible and forms a basis for evaluating propositions about the world. Whelton,B. (2002) 2 Philosophy course –First Assignment Positivism collapses the world into a single plane of events. In contrast, realism recovers the ontological depth between the three stratified domains and thereby establishes relations of natural necessity rather than the relations of logical necessity  (universality). Wainwright,S. ( 1997). Relevance of Realism to Nursing Realism proposes a common ontology and epistemology for the natural and social sciences. Realism enables the traditional natural and social science division in subjects like geography, psychology, medicine and nursing to be bridged. Realism can therefore provide ontological and epistemological basis for nursing. Wainwrigh( 1997). On the other hand, the interest her in the causal and epistemological ingredients of scientific realism because they support the claim that explanations are important in nursing science  and practice and that the aim of scientist is to discover better and better explanations. Gortner, and Schumacher,(1992). Relevance of Antirealism to Nursing It the positivist antirealism that make their views inappropriate for nursing science. It is not possible in positivism to deal with subjective aspects of person, nor with perceived relational processes, nor with explanations without translating them into physiological states or behaviors. One of the most serious consequences of an antilrealist construction of theories is that theories cannot explain. One of the major distinction  between scientific realism and antirealism is the way in which theoretical entities are understood. In the language of scientific realism the term theoretical entities usually means unobservable entities, states, or processes. The antirealists deny the existence of 3 Philosophy course –First Assignment unobservable entities or process. Antirealist assert that the notion of truth or falsity is relevant to observation even though it is not relevant to theory. Gortner, and Schumacher,(1992). Phenomenology For Edmund Husserl, phenomenology is the reflective study of the essence of  consciousness as experienced from the first-person point of view Phenomenology, founded by Edmund Husserl, promotes the idea that the natural world is largely shaped by the human mind. Wikipedia, (2007). Phenomenology is philosophical movement whose primary objective is the direct investigation and description of phenomena as consciously experienced. It remains different from and in opposition to positivism because it is a theoretical, non causal, and attempts to be free of supposition. Welch(1999) P243). Postmodernism The essence of truth lies within the individual and the individual may change or  later alter that view dependent on the context and the circumstances. Thus, the postmodern worldview is that truth neither singular nor multiple; it is personal and highly individualized and contextually driven. Welch Polifoni (1999)p-58) The Significance of Truth for Nursing as a Profession and as a Science. Science, philosophy and philosophy of science are all topics of great significance to nursing†¦the need to examine issues of what it means to know, what truth is, how we know and what can be learned from science and philosophy is central to growth in the 4 Philosophy course –First Assignment  discipline. Simultaneously, it is imperative that nurse scholars gain understanding of the divers scientific and philosophic traditions that have influenced the development of nursing knowledge in order to develop and enhance our science, our discipline and our profession. †. Welch and Polifroni (1999(p-1)) Philosophy of science in nursing seeks to understand truth, to examine prediction, causality and law, to critically relate theories, models and scientific systems. Theses goals are accomplished through the methods of philosophic inquiry of reflection and dialogue. Welch Polifroni(1999(p-5)). In order to understand what truth is, Welch Polifroni(1999) discussed the sources of truth ( Intuition, Authority, Tradition, Common Sense and Science)as well as the theories of truth such as correspondence theory; coherence theory; pragmatic theory; semantic and performative theory. These theories gave different interpretations for truth, for instance, correspondence theory suggests that truth is related to and correspond with reality, the truth is achieved through perceptions of the world, on the other hand for coherence theory, the truth is true if it is coherent while for the pragmatic theory the  truth is relative and related to the practicality and workableness of a solution. According to Newman, Sime and Corcoran-Perry(1991):’’ Nursing is the study of caring in the human health experience†¦nursing body of knowledge includes caring and human health experience. A body of knowledge that does not include caring and human health experience is not nursing knowledge. †. Truth can be achieved through knowing principles and causes of the natural kind behind phenomena. It is proposed that humans are the natural kind behind nursing phenomena. Thus, human nature provides proper principles (the truth) of nursing 5  Philosophy course –First Assignment practice†¦. It is proposed that it is knowledge of human nature that provides principles of human action, and thus human nature is a source of practical truth in nursing. Whelton . (2002). The realist ontological position assumes that an objective world exists independently of our knowledge, beliefs , theories or descriptions about it. This reality exists whether or not we can experience it or have conceptions of its nature. In contrast, several nonrealist positions have also been advanced, incorporating a wide variety of philosophical views pertaining to truth. These positions reject ontological and/or  epistemological realism, and therefore truth cannot be related to an external reality . Lomborg and Kirkevold (2003). However, Gortner and Schumacher (1992 )stated that ‘’ Nursing scholars can explore scientific realism for the insights it may provide for nursing science â€Å". Moreover, Gortner and Schumacher (1992) proposed that â€Å" Scientific realism is relevant to nursing science in the following ways: (1) It supports the full range of nursing theory; (2) It affirms the importance of including subjective client states in nursing theory and refutes the claim of the positivists that if it is not observable, it does not exist. ;(3) It adds the idea of the substantive content of explanations to discussion about forms of explanation;(4) It includes the notion of truth as a regulative ideal in science and claims that better theories are theories that are closer to the truth†. 6 Philosophy course –First Assignment Relate the Empiricism, Positivism, Historicism, and Relativism to the nature of scientific truth Positivism Positivist approaches are founded on an ontology that the things we experience are things that exist. Its epistemology requires that this experience is verified through the  deductive methodology of the `scientific method Wainwright,S. ( 1997). The positivistic philosophy of science will for example argue that scientific knowledge is objective and should be verified accordingly. Nyatanga(2005). The Relevance of Positivism to Nursing : It the positivist antirealism that make their views inappropriate for nursing science. It is not possible in positivism to deal with subjective aspects of person, nor with perceived relational processes, nor with explanations without translating them into physiological states or behaviors. One of the most serious consequences of an antilrealist  construction of theories is that theories cannot explain. Gortner, and Schumacher, (1992). EMPIRICISM Empiricism in its classical sense was a philosophical doctrine that considered observation to be the foundation of knowledge. Gortner and Schumacher(1992). Contemporary empiricism is a paradigm that has the ability to facilitate the application of the scientific facts learned from empirical methods within the appropriate context by taking interpretative knowledge into account†¦ It thus seems apparent that a broader view of scientific knowledge is required, and this is where contemporary views of 7  Philosophy course –First Assignment empiricism are more applicable to the practice of nursing. However, before reviewing the basic tenets of contemporary empiricism, there is a need to provide an overview of interpretive methods and their ability to provide a context or structure for the use of empirical knowledge. Pluralism supports the assumption of contemporary empiricism that human responses can be identified, measured and understood even considering their complex nature. Therefore, an important part of nursing knowledge acquisition includes a synthesis of the data in order to better understand the  synergistic effects of the whole, which cannot be learned simply by studying its parts. Traditional empiricism provides a basis for the study of certain types of knowledge that have made important contributions to the science of nursing. Giuliano,K. ( 2003) The strength of contemporary empiricism is that it values traditional empirical knowledge but takes interpretive knowledge into account in order to provide a context for the appropriate application of that knowledge. The pluralistic nature of contemporary empiricism gives it the ability to bridge the gap between the facts of scientific  knowledge and the use of scientific knowledge in order to facilitate the application of all types of nursing knowledge. Giuliano,K. ( 2003). HISTORICISM The main protagonist of historicism is Kuhn. He was dismayed to find that traditional accounts of the philosophy of science bore no comparison with historical 8 Philosophy course –First Assignment evidence. He then set out to establish a theory of the philosophy of science in keeping with historical evidence as he saw it (hence the term historicism). Nyatanga (2005). Relativism Epistemological relativism view of truth and falsity in general are relative. An epistemological relativist denies that anything at all can be known with certainty. According to hard core epistemological relativism, everything is a matter of opinion, including science. In this view of truth, nursing science has much knowledge that is derived from opinion and personal experience and consequently it is relative knowledge. Summary The importance and significance of the philosophical world views of realism, antirealism, phenomenology , postmodernism, positivism, empiricism, relativism and historicism for nursing science and profession were explored in this paper. However, this  area need more detailed exploration through our philosophy course in order to understand the similarities and differences between these philosophical worldviews and how we can integrate this knowledge in our practice and education. 9 Philosophy course –First Assignment References Giuliano,K. (2003). Expanding the use of empiricism in nursing: can we bridge the gap between knowledge and clinical practice? Nursing Philosophy. 2003,4, pp. 44–52. Gortner,S. and Schumacher,K. (1992). (Mis)conception and Reconceptions about Traditional Science. Advances in Nursing Science, 1992, 14(4):1-11 Lomborg,K. and Kirkevold,M.(2003). Truth and validity in grounded theory – a reconsidered realist interpretation of the criteria: fit, work, relevance and modifiability. Nursing Philosophy, 2003,4, pp. 189–200. Newman,M. , Sime, A. , and Cororan-Perry. .(1991)The Focus of the Discipline of Nursing. Advances in Nursing Science,(1991),14(1)1-6. Nyatanga, L. (2005). Nursing and the philosophy of science. Nurse Education Today (2005) 25, 670–674 Wainwright, S. ( 1997). A new paradigm for nursing: the potential of realism. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 1997, 26, 1262-1271 Weaver, K. and Olson, J. (2006). Understanding paradigms used for nursing  research. Journal of Advanced Nursing 2006 Vol. 53 Issue 4 pages 459–469 10 Philosophy course –First Assignment Welch,M. and Polifoni,E. (1999) . Perspectives on Philosophy of Science in Nursing. An Historical and Contemporary Anthology. Copyright 1999. Lippincott Williams Wilkins . Whelton,B. (2002) Human nature as a source of practical truth: Aristotelian–Thomistic realism and the practical science of nursing. Nursing Philosophy,2002, 3, pp. 35–46 Wikipedia, (2007). Phenomenology. Wikipedia the free encyclopedia. Retrieved October 15, 2007, from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Phenomenology.

Youth Justice And The Medias Society Criminology Essay

Youth Justice And The Medias Society Criminology Essay This essay will start by highlighting how the media may shape societys response to young people who break the law through the moral panic model. The medias role will be outlined and youth crime data summarised. The urban disturbances of the early 1990s and the death of James Bulger will both be discussed in turn. In both cases a description of the event will be followed by an outline of the media response, identifying elements typical within the moral panic model. An attempt will be made to understand the reaction of society to media representations associated with young law breakers. Finally, in each case the action undertaken by the agents of control will be examined. This essay will attempt to construct arguments challenging this model throughout, and suggest that moral panics may also have sources within societys elite through hegemony. It is acknowledged that arguments surrounding hegemony may link in to the groundbreaking youth justice legislation of the Crime and Disorder Act 1998, introduced after the period discussed in this essay. The impact of this legislation is acknowledged, however for the purposes of the media and societys response to young people who break the law it will not be discussed. The Moral Panic A moral panic may be outlined as the identification of a threat, for example to social values. This threat is simplified by the media with distorted representation resulting in raised social anxiety. Agents of control respond, resulting in either the panic diminishing or social changes taking place (Thompson cited in Newburn 2007 p95). The deviancy amplification cycle describes how heightened deviance may be attributed to stigma arising from media exaggeration or the treatment from agents of control (Brown 2005, Cohen 2002). Young highlights how this may quickly create problems through exaggerating an outsider lifestyle (Young cited in Kidd-Hewitt 2002 p119). Although studied by Jock Young in 1971 (Kidd-Hewitt 2002), Stanley Cohens Folk Devils and Moral Panics (1972) was described as the first systematic empirical study of a moral panic in Britain (Muncie 2004 p119). Cohens study of Mods and Rockers in Clacton during the Easter bank holiday in 1964 argued a clear relationship between young law breakers, the media, the general public and the police. Cohens work may be associated with Tannenbaums labelling and Lemerts primary and secondary deviance, all with origins in Mead and Cooleys symbolic interactionism (Newburn 2007). The media have constructed and processed information and ideas regarding deviancy since the industrial age, meaning society usually experience this commercially and politically constrained representation of deviance second hand (Cohen 2003). Hall et al (1978) explain how the media may have an assumed objectivity and frequently communicate an assumed social consensus, but they often have structured access to elite interests or primary definers, and reproduce their biased message. Cohen outlines elements which may appear in the media as stereotyping and stigmatising, a moral emphasis, and the requirement for further action. Information may be exaggerated and the use of symbols may be apparent with deviance represented through identifiable items such as clothing (Cohen 2002). Attitudes that may arise in a moral panic include the perception a disaster has occurred, the prophecy of doom (Cohen 2002 p38) where it is perceived events will happen again, and how at the height of a moral panic other unrelated events may be presented as connected. Perceived origins of a panic may include behaviour being likened to a disease, spreading and infecting. Nostalgia may appear along with disillusionment at the way things have become, impulsive activities may be described as premeditated, and behaviours may be perceived as newly developed (Cohen 2002). Youth Crime The ability of the media to influence public views of youth crime (Allen 2004 cited in Smith 2007) is evident through a rise in crime perceived by the majority of individuals who cited the media as a key information source (Hough and Roberts 2004). This is illustrated by 89 per cent of offenders known to the police being over the age of 18 yet nearly a third of survey respondent attributed most crime to children (Smith 2007). It is also suggested respondents perceived an exaggerated risk of being a crime victim (Goldson 2002 p391). It is advised that crime data should be treated with caution because an exact figure of occurrences does not exist (Tierney 2006). 20 per cent of the 5.4 million recorded crimes in 2006/07 were attributed to 10 to 17 year olds (Newburn 2007, Nicholas et al 2007) and approximately 80,000 crimes per annum are accountable to other agencies. These figures are not included in official crime data, along with 40 per cent of police reported crimes (Maguire 2002). Youth crime declined overall between 1985 and 1993 (Newburn 2002 cited in France) with relative consistency between 1993 and 2000 (Flood-Page et al 2000 cited in France). Offender and victim surveys highlight crimes not included in official data the dark figure (Newburn 2007) with estimated rates varying from eleven times more crime occurrences (Sparks et al 1977 cited in Tierney 2006) to a figure 39 times greater (Farrington et al 2006). Some crimes frequently undertaken by children have a smaller dark figure meaning proportionately more youth crime may be included in crime data. Crimes associated with younger people have estimated occurrences per actual conviction of six times for burglary, 77 for shoplifting and 132 for assault. Crimes associated with older offenders have rates of 809 occurrences per conviction for fraud, and 1463 for thefts from work (Farrington et al 2006). Early 1990s Urban Disturbances During the 1970s ideas surrounding the majority of crime being committed by a minority of individuals emerged from the Magistrates Association (Muncie 2004) and strategies during the 1980s were partly responsible for a reduction in youth crime (Pitts 2001). This increased sharply in the early 1990s by 111 per cent (Pitts 2001) and the Criminal Justice Act 1991 introduced an increasingly desert based sentencing policy, limiting the ability to consider previous crimes (Thomas 2003). From mid 1991 urban youth disturbances emerged from Cardiff, Oxford and in Newcastle notably on the Meadowell Estate where two young car thieves died in a police chase (Newburn 2007). These disturbances involved car related crime and resulted in conflict primarily between male youth and the police, and resulting in many arrests (Brown 2005). Individual younger children, identified by pseudonyms also appeared to be participating in unrelated activities such as domestic burglary Wykes (2001) argues that the poverty, substance misuse and lack of opportunity particularly experienced by the socially excluded Meadowell youth was largely ignored by the media. This supports Jewkes argument that the juvenile cultural resistance suggested by Cohens model may be exaggerated as a primary source of continued deviance (cited in Newburn 2007). The Media Exaggerated and distorted communication may have shaped societys perception of the level and type of offending being based on emotive, ambiguous and inaccurate information from the police and media (Garland cited in Goldson 2002). Labelling and stereotyping claimed hardcore child super crooks were responsible for 90 per cent of offences and were the number one crime problem (Daily Star, 30 November 1992 cited in Muncie 2004 p28). Reporting restrictions led to the identification of younger deviants through pseudonyms such as Ratboy, Homing Pigeon Boy, Spider Boy and The Terror Triplets (Muncie 2004). Deviant activities were distorted describing joyriding, ram raiding, and hotting (Muncie 2004) with frequent use of the term riot argued by Brown (2005) to be indicative of a moral panic. The graphic representation of deviance and the macho urban male youth stunt driving (Brown 2005 p59) supports McRobbie and Thorntons (2002) argument that moral panics may be entertaining. Moralising was also apparent with depictions of defiant youth as a ten year old in an SAS mask swaggered free from court resulting in calls for further action (Brown 2005 p60), although it is argued that a moral factor may not always be evident in a moral panic (Jewkes 2004 cited in Newburn 2007). The Terror Triplets illustrate the nature of the press coverage. The triplets were not persistent offenders with one previous conviction between them, and they all experienced health issues ranging from attention deficit hyperactivity disorder to epilepsy and a speech impediment with their education described in court as inadequate (guardian.co.uk 2002). Societys Reaction One panic surrounded the serious persistent young offender, frequently termed bail bandits (Brown 2005 p61) which failed to recognise that persistent offenders usually engage in petty crime, many are vulnerable children who are neglected or abused, with mental health and education issues (Muncie 2004). Vague and imprecise descriptions of youth deviance were highlighted by the police and media on an increasing basis with this lack of distinction fuelling social anxiety regarding the level and type of juvenile offending taking place (Garland cited in Goldson 2002). The inability of the criminal justice system to deal with youth crime was also a source of concern with Ratboy, who had accrued 55 offences between the ages of ten and 14, symbolising the inability for law and order to be maintained (Muncie 2004 p28). Despite decarceration and diversion reducing known juvenile offending in the 1980s, it was increasingly believed penal liberalism had gone too far (Goldson 2002 p390). Fiction increasingly replaced factual and rational information to conjure up monsters that seem to lurk behind the gloss and glitter of everyday life (Pratt 2000 cited in Goldson 2002 p390). Brown (2005) argues the moral panic had mutated into a total panic about the majority of young peoples lives, making the suggestion that Cohens model may provide an insufficient explanation. Childhood was considered to be in crisis, and as with Cohens prophecy of doom (2002 p38) idea, further deviance was expected (Pratt 2000 cited in Goldson 2002). Jewkes (cited in Newburn 2007) argues that the cohesiveness of societys reaction may be overstated in Cohens moral panic model. McRobbie and Thornton (2002) agree, noting how audiences may be sophisticated, understanding varying styles of interpretation which may fragment messages further, such as the ironic in-house publishing style in the Sun newspaper. Increased sources of information since the early 1990s such as the internet may cause further fragmentation. Agents of Control The extensive coverage escalated concerns prompting a Home Affairs Committee in July 1992 to consider youth crime, persistent young offenders and the youth justice system (HAC 1993 cited in Muncie 2004). It was concluded that an increasing minority of young offenders were committing a high volume of offences, despite a lack of evidence (Farrington 2002) and the idea of a persistent group being arbitrary (Hagell Newburn in Muncie 2004). Smith argues that the government responded through introducing the Aggravated Vehicle-Taking Act 1992, which was imprisonable for five years (Home Affairs Committee 1993; Childrens Society 1993 cited in Smith 2007, Brown 2005), later increased to 14 years in the Criminal Justice Act 2003 (statutelaw.gov.uk 2008). Hegemony Brown agrees with Cohens suggestion that the agents of control have no choice but to respond in their socially sanctioned manner suggesting that high media coverage prompted the police action towards joyriding which had been occurring for some time (Brown 2005). The elite-engineered moral panic model provides an alternative explanation, describing how societys powerful elite may be the source (Goode and Ben-Yehuda cited in Newburn 2007). Marxist philosopher Gramsci explains such activity through hegemony, something Hall et all include in their model of the moral panic (Hall et al 1978) and something Smith (2007) cites as significant. Hegemony describes the persuasive communication of a societal consensus of belief systems through the media, gaining legitimacy for elite actions (Althusser 1977 and Cohen 1985 cited in Smith 2007, Smith 2007, Brown 2005). Prior to the Aggravated Vehicle-Taking Act 1992 The Lord Chief Justice and the Magistrates Association were overtly discontent with political interference and the limited capacity to increase sentences the Criminal Justice Act 1991. A sophisticated campaign (Smith 2007 p25) during 1991 by powerful members of the police also emerged relating to persistent young offenders, argued to have resulted in a media moral panic (Brown 2005, Downes and Morgan 2002). The Death of James Bulger In February 1993 the well documented abduction of two year James Bulger by ten year olds Robert Thompson and John Venables occurred. Taken from a shopping centre, the boys walked for two miles to a railway track where James was attacked and murdered (Muncie 2004, Brown 2005, Smith 2007). Following nine months custody and a month long trial the boys were found guilty of the murder (Morrison 1997). The boys are now living under assumed identities, understood to be outside of the UK. 27 murders of children by children have occurred in the last 250 years (Muncie 2004) with four 10-13 year olds convicted of murder between 1979 and 1992 (Cavadino 1996). Children are considered to be at greater risk from people who know to them (Morrison 1997) highlighted by sexual abuse and torture of James Bulger which it was argued suggested indicated the sexual abuse and torture experienced by at least one of attackers (Sereny 1996). The Media The hostile and sensationalist approach to this case contrasted sharply with a similar Norwegian case which was treated as a tragic accident (Muncie 2004 p6) and a similar case from Stockport in 1861 where rehabilitation was the ultimate public response. Exaggerated and irrational labelling stigmatised the boys as spawn of satan, freaks of nature, and monsters (Muncie 2004 p4). Sereny (1996) argues that the response to the boys as innately evil highlights how insufficiently it was attempted to understand issues in their lives, with which Morrison agrees (1997). A consensus regarding a new type of deviance was evident as we will never be able to look at our children in the same way again. Concerns of reoccurrence were evident with parents everywhere are asking themselves and their friends if the Mark of the Beast might not also be imprinted on their offspring (Sunday Times cited in Muncie 2004 p4) advising For Goodness Sake Hold Tight To Your Kids (Sun 16 February 1993 cited in Mason 2003 p197). Blurring of the boundary between the media and the audience (McRobbie Thornton 2002) may be seen with the widely broadcast CCTV footage of James Bulger in a shopping centre with his assailants. The Bulger family created a petition in conjunction with the Sun newspaper and a television phone in of nearly 300,000 names demanding Thompson and Venables never to be released (Morrison 1997). Retributive comments broadcast on television included James father Ralph stating one day theyll be out of jail and Ill be waiting for them and Jamess uncle Jim threatening when we get hold of them, we will fucking kill them (Morrison p234). McRobbie and Thornton (2002) also explore the idea of pressure groups or the folk devils themselves blurring this boundary further and widening the debate by either appearing in or producing their own media, although this is not evident in this case. By 1995 young people were being represented as the savage generation (The Sunday Times 5 February 1995 cited in Kidd-Hewitt 2002 p117). Cohens its not only this (Cohen 2002 p39) idea was evident through frequent and omnipresent panics which blamed the breakdown of the family, the availability of drugs and the crimogenic media (Kidd-Hewitt 2002, Thornton cited in Newburn 2007). McRobbie and Thornton (2002) argue unlike the novelty described in Cohens model, this has become a basic media response. Society Despite this crimes unusualness, societal anxiety increased surrounding both the governments capacity to control the crimogenic capacity of younger children, and the protection of younger children (Pitt 2001, Muncie 2004, Brown 2005). Crime data suggests a trend of younger childrens involvement in crime through a fall in the peak age of offending, but this is also accompanied by earlier desistance (Criminal Statistics 1995 cited in Coleman 1997, Criminal Statistics 2005 cited in Coleman Schofield 2007). Adult perceptions regarding age-appropriate behaviour were challenged (Brown 2005) and with childhood on trial (James Jenks cited in Muncie 2004 p4) innocence shifted to potential evil and hate (Muncie Hughes 2002). It is also argued that resulting public and legal attitudes towards children have become more punitive as a result of this case (Hendrick 2002 p39) with misrepresentations fuelling harsher measures (Smith 2007). The well established panic surrounding crimogenic media also emerged (Brown 2005), a youth culture anxiety as seen as early as 1917 when the deteriorating influence of cinema was highlighted (Russell cited in Pearson 1983). In the Bulger case the film Childs Play 3 was the subject of this panic despite evidence in court suggesting this film had not been viewed by the boys (Morrison 1997). Brown (2005) argues that the films character Chucky who physically represented a child but behaviourally represented an adult was used as a symbol of the challenge to age-appropriate behaviour. More tenuous associations include the use of batteries in James Bulgers attack (Morrison 1997). Agents of Control It is argued that doli incapax (incapable of crime) where it must be proven that a child understands right and wrong was reviewed for ten to thirteen year olds in response to this case. Although the principle was initially retained it was later revoked in the Crime and Disorder Act 1998 (Bandalli 2000 cited in Gelsthorpe Morris 2002). Despite protection under the 1989 United Nations Convention on the Rights of a Child (UNCRC) mental health provision was limited during the boys nine months in custody and minimal allowance was made for their age with the trial in an adult court and their identities exposed to the international media, argued to have heightened the campaign of hate (Scraton Haydon 2002 p313). Upon release Dame Butler-Sloss favoured the 1998 Human Rights Act over freedom of expression, granting anonymity to Thompson and Venables for the risk of retributive injury or death (cited in Scraton Haydon 2002). The UK government breached articles relating to a fair trial, fixing sentence and periodic review of sentence in the European Convention of Human Rights (Muncie 2004, Scraton Haydon 2002). The sentence had already been increased from eight years to ten by the Lord Chief Justice. Final sentencing authority rested with Michael Howard (Sereny 1996) who increased it for a second time to 15 years, citing public concern and the Bulger petition (Morrison 1997). This illustrates Cohens argument that sometimes agents of control have to act. Once overturned, the Criminal Justice and Court Services Act 2000 removed the capacity for the Home Secretary to intervene in sentencing decisions (Muncie 2004). With crime becoming second only to unemployment on the agenda (Pitts 2001), the intention to incarcerate 12 to 14 year olds through secure training units and secure training orders was announced, ten days after James Bulgers death and only months after ending custody for 14 year olds in the Criminal Justice Act 1991 (Smith 2007). More punitive measures were introduced in the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 where the maximum sentence for fifteen to seventeen year olds doubled to two years (Newburn 2002). Hegemony The end of the bi-partisan consensus on crime was apparent in the 1970 Conservative Party manifesto (Pitts 2001) with punitive rhetoric becoming associated with political success (Smith 2007). By the 1992 general election a return to bi-partisanship was argued in the form of being tough on crime as a means to political victory (Downes Morgan 2002). Following Labours 1992 defeat policies were transferred from the reinvented and electorally successful Democrats (Pitts 2001) argued to have rescued the Labour Party from perpetual opposition (Pitts 2001 p18, Hudson Lowe 2004) which included a punitive approach towards crime. This was evident the month before James Bulgers death when the Shadow Home Secretary, Tony Blair declared how New Labour were tough on crime, tough on causes of crime (cited in Pitts 2001 p19). Political posturing is argued to have become part of youth justice continuing throughout the 1990s with Labours new approach suggested to have heightened Conservative government punitiveness. It is argued that rather than being a catalyst for policy change, the murder of James Bulger may have accelerated the punitive turn. The abolition of doli incapax may be associated with this event but it is argued that events prior to James Bulgers death were already influencing youth justice policy (Smith 2007). The tone of political communication highlights the argued political exploitation of youth fear with labels like vermin (Goldson 2002 p392). John Major illustrated an assumed punitive consensus (Hall et al 1978), saying how society needs to condemn a little more and understand a little less and Kenneth Clarke called for increased court powers, emphasising hostility towards really persistent, nasty little juveniles (Smith 2007 p25). McRobbie and Thornton argue hegemony is overstated due to the potential plurality of reactions (2004 p72), something Jewkes also points out, describing how public and media cohesion is overstated (cited in Newburn 2007 p100), although it is noted that fragmented hegemonic activity may be seen, for example with Thatcherism and the Daily Mail (McRobbie Thornton 2004). Following on from the deviance amplification model, it may be argued that in some cases governments may increase deviancy through the interventions they initiate (Brown 2005). Conclusion It has been suggested that the media is powerful in shaping societys response to young people who break the law, being a primary information source. One of the ways in which the media shapes societys response is by creating the impression that youth crime is more widespread that really is the case. The problems that some deviant youth experience are grossly under represented such as the health issues of The Terror Triplets and the potential that at least one of James Bulgers attackers may have also been a ten year old victim of sexual abuse. Problems also include the failure to circulate general information such as the dark figure of crime for fraud, the adult age of most known offenders or a fall in the peak offending age. The simplified and exaggerated way in which youth are represented is argued to cause widespread societal panic and irrational fears, for example the anticipation of similar repeat activity in the case of rare crimes such as the murder of James Bulger. Explanations for the activity such as its not only this may feed the panic, resulting in greater fears about unrelated factors and in the case of the early 1990s lead to a total panic about youth. Authority action may be influenced by the public interest generated by a moral panic, and in the case of hegemony societys response to the media may be the provision of consent for authority action. It was argued that moral panics also have the potential to be entertaining and do not always include moralising. The cohesiveness of response to a moral panic may be overstated with the plurality of media highlighted. The idea of a total panic about youth was considered and the blurring of boundaries illustrated as having the potential to diffuse anxieties through debate widening, or heighten concerns and inform state action, as with the petition in the Bulger case. In conclusion, evidence may support the model described by Cohen, it is suggested however that other perspectives highlight that the way in which the media and society interact with respect to young people who break the law is more complex.

Channel Structure and strategic choice in distribution channels Essay

This article mainly talks about the importance of marketing channel of marketing channel strategy decisions, they are highlighted by: 1) term consequences and 2) the constraints andopportunities that they represent..The present paper incorporates strategic management theory into marketingchannels literatures to examine the impact of different channel structures onthe choice of a generic channels strategy. Specifically, the contingent effects of channel power/control and the degree ofvertical integration are examined as they affect the choice between thegeneric strategies of overall costleadership, differentiation, focus, andcombination strategies. Besides research on the manipulation of power and influence attempts, littleattention has been given to the study of channel strategies. The intent of the present paper is to examine how one strategy concept,choice of a generic strategy, can be applied in a channel context. The basis of the discussion of strategy will be Porter’s str ategy typology,though supporting literature wiU also be used. Overall LowCost Leader, The OLC strategy stresses economies of scale,proprietary knowledge, preferendal access to raw materials, aggressive pricingpolicies, cost minimizadon, stable product lines and other factors which leadthe firm to become â€Å"The† low-cost producer or supplier in its industry. Specifically, I will be concerned with how varying levels of vertical integrationand power/control within the channel affect the choice of a generic strategy. I first need to provide a brief review of the strategy framework to be utilized. The Strategic Framework The work by Porter defines three generic strategieswhich firms might choose to pursue in order to establish a competidveadvantage: overall low-cost leader, differentiation and focus. According to Porter, a firm’s compeddve advantage combines with its scope ofacdvides to determine which of the three generic strategies the firm willchoose. The generic strategy, will, in turn affect the performance of the firm. 80 Firms stressing the differendadon strategy seek to be unique in theirindustry along some dimensions that are widely valued by buyers. Focus The focus strategy rests on the choice of a narrow compeddve  scopewithin an industry. The firm following this strategy selects a segment or subsecdon of an industryand s ets a strategy to serve it better than anyone else in the industry. Combination Strategies Porter states that each of his strategies is a†Fundamentally different approach to creadng and sustaining a compeddveadvantage†. Further support for a combination strategy is found in Wright, et al. Interestingly, the firms with the highest performance followed a combinationstrategy. Vertical Integration and Strategy The literature just discussed providesevidence that organizations may pursue more than one strategy at a time,thus allowing for a combination strategy. The current paper will include four potential strategies from which firms mightchoose: OLC, differentiation, focus, and combination. The following section will develop propositions, which identify contingentchannel conditions, which affect the choice of a generic strategy. Development of Propositions A number of management researchers have putforth contingency approaches, identifying under what conditions each genericstrategy is appropriate. On the internal end, are cost minimization, low cost leader, and defenderstrategies, consistent with the vertically integrated firm? At the other end ofthe continuum are maximizing, prospecting, and differentiating strategies,consistent with the nonintegrated firm. PI: Firms which are highly vertical integrated are more likely to choose an OLCstrategy. P2: Firms with low levels of integration are more Ukely to choose adifferentiation strategy. In terms of a combination strategy, there is evidence to suggest that firms,which generate high growth and high profits, are better equipped to use botha differentiation and an OLC strategy. When combined, these strategies produce enhanced economies of scale andimproved ROI. Some researchers take the position that power is necessarily a negativeaspect in that, those who possess it will attempt to infiuence exchangepartners by use of coercive influence strategies. If the firm chooses a focus strategy, it will attempt to â€Å"Own† a particularmarket segment either through price leadership or differentiation. The difference between this strategy and the focus strategy is the fact thatfocus concentrates on a particular segment, while this strategy is industry-wide. The choice between these two strategies is likely to depend on the scope  ofthe supplier’s activities. While these firms are able to compete on an OLC strategy, there is not muchincentive to do so. When competing firms counter the low cost leader strategy, firms musteventually turn to some form of differentiation or suffer long-runconsequences for the industry. P5: When faced with the superior power of buyers, suppliers with a regionalcompetitive scope will attempt to combat the power of buyers by choosing afocus strategy. As discussed in the section on vertical integration, the pursuit of tactics suchas integration, cost reductions, and reliance on standardization of practices,is consistent with an overall low-cost leader strategy. P6: When faced with high levels of supplier power, buying firms willemphasize on a differentiated focus strategy. The concept of channel strategy has received little attention. Specifically, the contingent effects of channel power/control and the degree ofvertical integration have been examined as they affect the choice betweenthe geneVic strategies of overall cost-leadership, differentiation, focus, andcombination strategies. Contingent propositions is meant to show the interrelationship of channelstructure and subsequent channel strategies.

Cost Cut Theory

Ritter explained. the bigger loss, of course, is the future value of the money, according to the financial analysts. â€Å"if you left the $10,000 in for 20 years and it earned 8 percent, that would have amounted to $46,600,† Ritter noted. Ritter said that taking money out of a 401(k) plan—as either a loan or a hardship withdrawal—can be a false solution that keeps the person in crisis from taking appropriate action, such as selling the house, getting another job, or cutting expenses. You need a systemic solution, something that’s going to change your household cash flow,† he said. liberto said another reason to avoid a hardship withdrawal in the current market is that the employee would be borrowing funds that have dropped in value, with no chance to recoup the loss when the market recovers.Barbara Bird, a management professor and entrepreneurship expert at american university in Washington, d. c. , said that at this time of such dramatic financial upheaval, companies can help employees by providing financial education. a lot of people out there don’t know what diversification means,† she said, or what the difference is between stocks and bonds. Bird said that some people who take hardship withdrawals do not understand the tax consequences until april. companies can set up training classes or communicate through a newsletter or Web page, she added. â€Å"one of the things managers need to do in times of crisis is to communicate,† Bird said, â€Å"to share as much as they can about what’s happening at the company as the financial situation plays out nationally. q MaRcH 2009 COST-CUTTING TIPS, TACTICS & STRATEGIESInTRODuCeHDHPsTOCuTHeALTHCAReCOsTs Issue:in 2005, a business services company sought to cut its health care costs by introducing high deductible health plans ( HdHps) to its employees in hopes of increasing its enrollment. Response:â€Å"along with the HdHp options, we also started offering health savings accounts that included employer contributions to these accounts,† the benefits administrator at the 225-employee firm told us. Result:â€Å"these new plans increased our participation in 2006; 65 percent of our employees who participate in the health program are covered in one of he HdHp plans,† the benefits administrator added. â€Å"due to the increased enrollment in 2006 and the reduced claims experience, we were able to offer our plans to employees in 2007 with no increase in premium amounts. †Issue:a 400-employee transportation company was looking for simple changes to its benefits plan that would keep costs from rising more than 8 percent. Response:â€Å"our principal move was to couple an increase in deductibles with a contribution increase,† the controller told us. Formerly, we also included dental coverage with the cost of medical. now, we charge additional amounts for it. Finally, we increased copayments for our drug program. † Result:increasing the deductibles saved the company roughly $150,000. â€Å"and to lessen the sting of these increases to employees, we supplemented our life offering, which was viewed positively,† the controller added. CHAnGeyOuRCOnTRIBuTIOnTIeRs Issue: the benefits manger at a new York-based hotel, hospitality, and lodging company was looking for a way to change its contribution toward health care coverage to help cut costs.Response:â€Å"We changed from a two-tiered contribution single and family to a four-tiered contribution (single, couple, single with child(ren), and family). it was done during open enrollment for 2007 benefits,† the benefits manager told ioMa. Result:â€Å"it enabled us to reduce costs. Many associates with dual coverage opted out as the family plan went up by 105 percent for a contribution. it went from $22 per week to $46. www. ioma. com/HR 15

Definition of Freeboard of a Ship or Boat

Definition of Freeboard of a Ship or Boat Freeboard in the simplest terms is the distance from the waterline to the top of a vessel’s hull. Freeboard is always a measurement of vertical distance but in most vessels, it is not a single measurement unless the top of the hull is completely flat and parallel to the water along the entire length. Minimum Freeboard One way of expressing freeboard is to refer to the minimum freeboard of a boat or ship. This is an important measurement since it determines how much weight a vessel can carry or how it will perform in wind and waves. If minimum freeboard ever reaches zero it is possible that water could run over the side of the hull and into the boat causing it to sink if enough water accumulates. Some boats have a very low freeboard design that allows easy access to the surface of the water. Examples of this are buoy tenders and research boats which must have easy access to the water to go about their business. By Design Naval architects design these ships with sealed decks so if water does reach the top of the hull it drains off back into the water and does not impact the buoyancy of the ship. Most vessels, large and small, do not have a simple freeboard that is a straight line. Instead, the freeboard is higher at the bow, or front of the vessel, and slopes down to the stern at the rear. The designers shape the hull like this because as a boat moves through the water it might meet waves which are higher than the surface of the water. The higher bow allows a boat to ride up the surface of a wave and keeps water out. Deadrise The method that is used to describe the shape of a hull in naval architecture is called Deadrise. Deadrise is used in all forms shipbuilding since it is an ancient solution to keep unwanted water out of your ship. Cross Section The ideas of freeboard and deadrise come together when we consider a cross section of a hull. If we cut a slice across the hull we see that the profile of the hull rises from the keel at the bottom up to the waterline and then to the top of the hull. The area between the water and the top of the hull is the area where freeboard is measured. If we look at other slices of the hull the freeboard may change from higher in the area of the bow to lower near the stern. Freeboard Is Not Fixed The amount of freeboard is not a fixed number unless a boat always carries exactly the same load. If you load any vessel with more weight the freeboard will decrease and the draft will increase. That is the main reason any vessel must operate within the load capacity calculated by the designers. Compared to old-style pencil and paper drafting techniques that resulted in blueprints which were interpreted by each foreman, new building techniques offer the potential for much more complex and efficient designs. State of the Art Software drafting programs now allow naval architects to design precisely and CNC machines allow builders to stay within a few millimeters of the planned dimensions, even on a 300-meter vessel. The key to this accuracy is the number of stations found along the length of the hull. In the old days, maybe three meters of the hull were described in detailed drawings. Today, the number of stations is only limited to the size of the plan. A taper of one centimeter over 100 meters is possible today, which lets designers make complex shapes and also allows for modular construction and float out before final assembly.

Johann Sebastian Bach - Summary Of His Life Essays - Free Essays

Johann Sebastian Bach - Summary Of His Life Essays - Free Essays Johann Sebastian Bach - Summary of His Life Johann Sebastian Bach was one of the greatest composers in Western musical history. More than 1,000 of his compositions survive. Some examples are the Art of Fugue, Brandenburg Concerti, the Goldberg Variations for Harpsichord, the Mass in B-Minor, the motets, the Easter and Christmas oratorios, Toccata in F Major, French Suite No 5, Fugue in G Major, Fugue in G Minor ("The Great"), St. Matthew Passion, and Jesu Der Du Meine Seele. He came from a family of musicians. There were over 53 musicians in his family over a period of 300 years. Johann Sebastian Bach was born in Eisenach, Germany on March 21, 1685. His father, Johann Ambrosius Bach, was a talented violinist, and taught his son the basic skills for string playing; another relation, the organist at Eisenach's most important church, instructed the young boy on the organ. In 1695 his parents died and he was only 10 years old. He went to go stay with his older brother, Johann Christoph, who was a professional organist at Ohrdruf. Johann Christoph was a professional organist, and continued his younger brother's education on that instrument, as well as on the harpsichord. After several years in this arrangement, Johann Sebastian won a scholarship to study in Luneberg, Northern Germany, and so left his brother's tutelage. A master of several instruments while still in his teens, Johann Sebastian first found employment at the age of 18 as a "lackey and violinist" in a court orchestra in Weimar; soon after, he took the job of organist at a church in Arnstadt. Here, as in later posts, his perfectionist tendencies and high expectations of other musicians - for example, the church choir - rubbed his colleagues the wrong way, and he was embroiled in a number of hot disputes during his short tenure. In 1707, at the age of 22, Bach became fed up with the lousy musical standards of Arnstadt (and the working conditions) and moved on to another organist job, this time at the St. Blasius Church in Muhlhausen. The same year, he married his cousin Maria Barbara Bach. Again caught up in a running conflict between factions of his church, Bach fled to Weimar after one year in Muhlhausen. In Weimar, he assumed the post of organist and concertmaster in the ducal chapel. He remained in Weimar for nine years, and there he composed his first wave of major works, including organ showpieces and cantatas. By this stage in his life, Bach had developed a reputation as a brilliant, if somewhat inflexible, musical talent. His proficiency on the organ was unequaled in Europe - in fact, he toured regularly as a solo virtuoso - and his growing mastery of compositional forms, like the fugue and the canon, was already attracting interest from the musical establishment - which, in his day, was the Lutheran church. But, like many individuals of uncommon talent, he was never very good at playing the political game, and therefore suffered periodic setbacks in his career. He was passed over for a major position - which was Kapellmeister (Chorus Master) of Weimar - in 1716; partly in reaction to this snub, he left Weimar the following year to take a job as court conductor in Anhalt-Cothen. There, he slowed his output of church cantatas, and instead concentrated on instrumental music - the Cothen period produced, among other masterpieces, the Brandenburg Concerti. While at Cothen, Bach's wife, Maria Barbara, died. Bach remarried soon after - to Anna Magdalena - and forged ahead with his work. He also forged ahead in the child-rearing department, producing 13 children with his new wife - six of whom survived childhood - to add to the four children he had raised with Maria Barbara. Several of these children would become fine composers in their own right - particularly three sons: Wilhelm Friedmann, Carl Philipp Emanuel and Johann Christian. After conducting and composing for the court orchestra at Cothen for seven years, Bach was offered the highly prestigious post of cantor (music director) of St. Thomas' Church in Leipzig - after it had been turned down by two other composers. The job was a demanding one; he had to compose cantatas for the St. Thomas

Evolution of Health Care Information Systems Paper Essay

Evolution of Health Care Information Systems Paper - Essay Example An information system may simply be defined as an arrangement of people, technology, processes and data that interact to gather, process, store, transfer and provide output in form of useful information that supports the organization. The HCIS (Health Care Information System) traditionally was developed to primarily manage financial and administrative data with an aim of supporting management functions as well as general operations of the organization that deals in healthcare services (Tan, 2005). Administrative applications of HCIS include admission, transfer and discharge registration, scheduling, accounts receivable and patient billing, utilization management, payroll, staff scheduling, material management, general ledger and accounts payable administration (Tan, 2005). The clinical information system on the other hand contains clinical/ health related information that is related to diagnosing, monitoring and treating patients. Clinical applications generally consist of the ancillary information system and other systems which include nursing documentation, medication administration, tele-health and telemedicine, electronic medical record and provider order entry. Changes witnessed in healthcare systems have become real, more as a result of advancements in information systems, medical technology and healthcare delivery, and management practices (Tan, 2005). Up to the early 1980s, HIS (Healthcare Information Systems) were more oriented towards information â€Å"supply† for purposes of conducting business. Attention however shifted over time to a system that is more â€Å"demand† oriented; information and its importance. This led to the gradual replacement of pencils, calculators, paper and cards, mechanical punches and people for performing vital tasks (Dudeck, Blobel, Lordieck & Bà ¼rkle, 1997). The typical office in the healthcare facility then was characterized by cumbersome and labor intensive work methods. These methods and systems were later

Pros and Cons of Breast Cancer and Biomakers Research Paper

Pros and Cons of Breast Cancer and Biomakers - Research Paper Example Most of the tumor markers are produced by cancer cells and also normal cells, but are increased in cancerous conditions. These factors are found in tumor tissue, blood, urine and other tissues and fluids of the body in some patients with cancer. More often than not, tumor markers are proteins. (National Cancer Institute, 2012) More than 20 different tumor markers have been described and characterized and they are in clinical use (National Cancer Institute, 2012). While some are associated with only one type of cancer, others are associated with more than one type of cancer. However, there is no universal tumor marker that can detect any type of cancer. Tumor markers serve various purposes in cancer management like complementing diagnosis, prognostication, detection of recurrence, etc. However, there are certain limitations for the use of these markers. Thus, there are pros and cons to the use of tumor markers. In this essay, pros and cons of application of biomarkers or tumor markers in breast cancer management will be discussed. Application of breast cancer biomarkers The most common cancer affecting women all over the world is breast cancer and it has been estimated that about one million cases are diagnosed every year worldwide (Duffy et al, 2005). The main presenting features of the disease include lump in the breast, skin contour changes and nipple discharge. Asymptomatic cases may be picked up during routine screening tests. Definitive diagnosis is histopathology of the biopsy specimen. Several blood based biomarkers are available, but they do not have a role in the early diagnosis of the disease. For localized breast cancer, primary treatment is mastectomy or breast-conserving surgery and radiation. In invasive breast cancer, primary treatment is followed by hormone therapy or chemotherapy. These treatments have shown to reduce mortality related to breast cancer. Following primary therapy, the patients are followed up at regular intervals for surveillanc e. This includes clinical history, detailed physical examination, chest X-ray, mammography, biochemical testing and use of breast cancer markers. The intention is to detect recurrent disease at an early stage so that outcomes are better. This is one use of tumor marker. There are other uses of tumor markers in breast cancer management. Recurrent disease is common even in lymph node-negative cases and therapeutic options in such cases include exclusive hormone therapy or chemotherapy or a combination of both. Metastatic breast cancer is considered incurable and treatment is mainly palliative. Serial assessment of tumor markers is useful in to decide whether a particular treatment modality can be continues or there is a need to switch to another treatment modality. Thus, it is now clear that tumor markers are necessary for optimal management of breast cancer (Duffy et al, 2005). Pros of breast cancer biomarkers There are 2 types of tumor markers available for breast cancer and they ar e serum markers and tissue markers. Examples of serum markers useful in breast cancer include CEA, CA 15-3, polypeptide antigen or TPA, BR 27.29, tissue polypeptide specific antigen or TPS and the shed form of HER-2 (Duffy, 2006). Examples of tissue markers include urokinase plasminogen activator, HER-2, hormone receptors and plasminogen activator-1. Most of the oncological organizations in Europe, US and other countries recommend routine assay of progesterone and estrogen receptors on all newly diagnosed breast cancers to select the type of hormone therapy (Duffy, 2006). These markers are also useful to determine prognosis. HER-2 is also recommended on all newly diagnosed breast cancer cases. The main purpose of this is to determine whether the cancer is suitable for Trastuzumab (Herceptin). This test is